about the Joseph Lister and his image

Joseph Lister was born on the 5th April, 1827 at Upton, Essex, England. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from University College, London and then continued as a medical student in 1848. He was influenced by the physiologist William Sharpney and obtained his medical degree in 1852.
In 1856, Joseph Lister became an assistant surgeon at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, where he met his future wife, who was extremely interested in his work.
Lister was appointed to the Regius Professorship of Surgery at Glasgow University in 1861 and was later made surgeon at Glasgow Royal Infirmary.

History of Galileo Galilei & his invations

Galileo Galilei was born in 1564 at Pisa. Galileo began his studies in medicine at the University of Pisa, but soon dropped out, preferring to study mathematics with Ostilio Ricci. In 1592 he obtained the chair of mathematics at Padua, and began working on the inclined plane and the pendulum. By 1598, Galileo believed in the truth of the Copernican theory, as he wrote to Kepler. Around 1604, he began working on astronomy in order to lecture on the new star that had appeared that year.
In 1609, Galileo heard of the telescope while in Venice, and on his return, constructed one for himself. In 1610, Galileo published his telescopic discoveries in The Starry Messenger, and dedicated the four satellites of Jupiter that he had discovered to Cosimo II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, naming them 'the Medicean stars'.

In The Starry Messenger, in addition to the satellites of Jupiter, Galileo reported that the milky-way was a collection of stars and how the moon in fact had a ragged surface like earth. The Starry Messenger was a sensational success, and Galileo became well known throughout Europe. In 1611, Galileo traveled to Rome, where the Collegio Romano, at the behest of Robert Bellarmino, confirmed Galileo's findings. Frederico Cesi hosted a banquet in honour of Galileo, and was elected to Cesi's 'Accademia dei Lincei' (Academy of the Lynxes). In Rome, Galileo also met Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, who later sided with him on the controversy over floating bodies at a court dinner in Florence.

Picture of Jupiter's satellites from the Sidereus Nuncius.
Image by kind permission of the Master and Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Large image (89K).
Very large image (1M).

One morning in 1613, at breakfast, Cosimo de' Medici and his mother, the Grand Duchess Christina began discussing the truth of Jupiter's satellites. Benedetto Castelli, Galileo's student, who was present, asked Galileo to comment on the central point of that conversation Ü the conflict between the Bible and the heliocentric doctrine. The reply was the famous 'Letter to Grand Duchess Christina' which circulated widely in manuscript form at the time. In it, Galileo famously declared that the Bible teaches how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go. Galileo's belief in the truth of the Copernican hypothesis alarmed Dominicans such as Tommaso Caccini and Niccolo Lorini, and the Inquisition examined Galileo's letter to Christina. Thus began Galileo's trouble with the Catholic Church.
Galileo's run-in with the Church is famous to this day, though often over-romanticized or misunderstood. For instance, his declaration in the wake of the condemnation: 'And yet the earth still moves!' is apocryphal. It is therefore important to appreciate the precise nature of the affair.

There were two occasions (1616 and 1632) when Galileo was called to Rome over the truth of Copernicus' theory. As a result of inspecting Galileo's letter, in February 1616, it was agreed by the Inquisition that 1) the immobility of the Sun at the centre of the universe was absurd in philosophy and formally heretical, and that 2) the mobility of Earth was absurd in philosophy and at least erroneous in theology.

At the order of the Pope, Galileo was then summoned (February 1616) by Robert Bellarmino to be cautioned against speaking out on behalf of the Copernican claim. Rumours, however, quickly began to circulate that Galileo had been condemned and prosecuted. In defence, Galileo secured from Bellarmino a letter stating that this was not the case but that he had had been notified of the Papal decision to censor Copernicus' De Revolutionibus because a heliostatic claim was contrary to the literal meaning of Scripture.

Galileo duly kept away from writing on cosmological matters, concentrating instead, on applying his discovery of Jupiter's satellites for determining longitude at sea. In 1623 he wrote the Assayer, published by the Academy of the Lynxes and dedicated to Barberini. There, Galileo famously wrote:

Philosophy is written in this grand book - the universe - which stands continuously open to our gaze. But the book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth. (As quoted by Machamer in The Cambridge Companion to Galileo, pp.64f.)
His sympathizer and patron Barberini had just been elected Pope, as Urban VIII. In 1624 Galileo had an audience with the Pope, who favourably received the Assayer. In the meetings he had with the Pope, Galileo believed he was encouraged to discuss the Copernican theory so long as it was treated as an hypothesis and began to compose the Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, which was published in 1632 and dedicated to the Grand Duke. The work caused a furore because Galileo seemed to have gone against the injunction not to advocate the physical truth of Copernicus' claim. The sale of the book was suspended six months after its publication.
In September 1632, Galileo was summoned to Rome, where he arrived in January 1633. First the inquisitors tried to get Galileo to admit that he had earlier been officially banned from teaching Copernicus' theory as true, but Galileo produced Bellarmine's letter to contradict this. By then, both Bellarmine (1621) and Cesi (1630) were dead, and Galileo had few powerful patrons left to defend him. A plea bargain to plead guilty to a lesser charge was scuppered, however, when Urban VIII decided in June that Galileo should be imprisoned for life. Galileo was then interrogated under threat of torture, and made to abjure the 'vehement suspicion of heresy'. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. Galileo spent the rest of his life at his home at Arcetri, under house arrest with the archbishop of Siena. Pleas for pardons or for medical treatment were refused.

WHAT DID GALILEO GALILEI ACHIEVES ?

In 1609 Galileo heard that a new instrument had been invented in the Netherlands which made objects in the distance seem close to the observer. Galileo tried to create this using a variety of lenses and he soon succeeded in making a basic telescope using a concave and a convex lens at either end of a lead tube. At the third attempt he produced a telescope that made objects appear 1 000 times larger and over thirty times closer than seen with the naked eye. Although Galileo could see the importance of the telescope's aid to navigation at sea and over land, he was most interested in its use to look at the skies.

Through the telescope, Galileo observed that the surface of the moon appeared pitted with craters. There were mountain peaks lit by the sun's light and other parts that remained in darkness. Galileo then turned his telescope to view the stars, but found that unlike the moon, the stars were hardly magnified. He was, however, overwhelmed by the hundreds of stars that suddenly became visible. The Milky Way, which to the naked eye had been just a pale uncertain glow, viewed through a telescope was revealed as a myriad of individual stars.

On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed three very bright objects close to Jupiter. After observing these over a number of nights, he noticed that the pattern changed and a fourth bright object became visible. Galileo explained there were four satellites which revolved about Jupiter and Jupiter and its satellites revolved around the sun.

To Galileo, it followed that the sun must be the centre of the universe.

In March 1610, Galileo published the results of his observations under the title The Starry Messenger. Hundreds of copies were soon printed. Some philosophers such as Kepler, received his work with enthusiasm, but others such as Libri who taught philosophy at Pisa, were far less enthusiastic. Libri actually refused to even look through a telescope. Allegations were made that Galileo's observations were the result of illusions created by the telescope. This may seem a curious reaction, but it was well known that a single lens could distort and if this was the case, the combination of two lens could be regarded with even more suspicion.

Galileo's new found fame gained him an appointment as court mathematician in Florence. This freed him from teaching duties and gave him more opportunity to carry out research and writing. By December 1610 he had observed the phases of Venus which further confirmed his faith in the theories of Copernicus.

In 1611 Galileo visited Rome and was greeted by Clavius and other Jesuits of the Roman College. The head of the Roman College. Cardinal Robert Bellarmine asked the Jesuit mathematicians for their opinions of Galileo's discoveries. The Jesuits confirmed Galileo's discoveries to Bellarmine. Galileo went on to have an audience with the Pope where he was well received. While in Rome he was made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, a society dedicated to the pursuit of learning, especially of natural philosophy. It appeared that Galileo's visit to Rome had been a great success and his standing in the Church seemed high. But, this was not necessarily the case!

Cardinal Bellarmine was a leading theologian in the Catholic Church and the Guardian of Orthodoxy. He had been one of the Inquisitors who had tried Giordano Bruno, for heretical views on the Immaculate Conception and other conflicting philosophies. Bruno was burned at the stake in 1600. Bellarmine did not want another such case on his hands, as Bruno had also been a supporter of Copernicus. So, despite the opinions of the Jesuits he wrote to the the Chief Inquisitor at Padua to ask if Galileo's name had been mentioned in the recent case of an Aristotelian philosopher who had aroused Church opposition for his denial of the immortality of the soul. Galileo had no involvement in the case.

The Church was not the only body which Galileo had to fear. There were also enemies working against him amongst the university professors, whose reputations and occupations depended on the continuation of Aristotelian philosophies. There is evidence that one man in particular, Lodovico delle Colombe was behind the outbursts that certain friars were soon to make on Galileo.

In 1612 Galileo published a work titled, Discourse on Floating Bodies, which attacked Aristotelian physics. This resulted in Galileo's own work being challenged in four printed articles.

In 1613 Galileo published Letters on Sunspots which resulted in an unpleasant argument with Father Christopher Scheiner, a Jesuit astronomer. Galileo argued that the sun, like the moon was not free from imperfections. However, blemishes on the face of the sun were unacceptable to Scheiner, who, as an Aristotelian believed in the perfection of the heavens. Scheiner attributed sunspots to small planets obstructing our view of the sun as they passed close to it. In fact sunspots had been observed centuries before as they are visible to the naked eye. Unlike The Starry Messenger which had been written in Latin, Letters on Sunspots were in Italian and so could be read by a far greater number of people.

In Galileo's absence a Pisan professor told the Medici family, who were Galileo's employers and the ruling body, that belief in a moving earth was heretical.

In 1614 a Florentine priest denounced Galileists from the pulpit. In response, Galileo wrote a long, open letter on the irrelevance of biblical passages in scientific arguments. He argued that interpretation of the Bible should be adapted to increasing knowledge and that no scientific position should ever be made an article of Roman Catholic Faith. Cardinal Bellarmine instructed Galileo he must no longer hold or defend the policy that the earth moves. Galileo remained silent on the subject for a number of years, working on a method of determining longitudes at sea by using his predictions of the positions of Jupiter's satellites.

In 1624 Galileo started on a book he wanted to call Dialogue on the Tides. In this he discussed the Ptolemaic and Copernican hypothesis in relation to the physics of tides. In 1634 the book was licensed for printing but the Roman Catholic censors altered the title to Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems. It was published at Florence in 1632.

Galileo was summoned to Rome to face the Inquisition and to stand trial for "grave suspicion of heresy." This charge was grounded on a report that Galileo had been personally ordered in 1616 not to discuss Coperican theory either orally or in writing. Cardinal Bellarmine had died, but Galileo produced a certificate signed by the cardinal stating that Galileo had been subjected to no further restriction than any other Roman Catholic under the 1616 edict. No signed document contradicting this was ever found.

In 1633 Galileo was compelled to abjure and was sentenced to life imprisonment, which was swiftly commuted to house arrest. The Dialogue was ordered to be burned and the sentence against was to be read publicly in every university in Italy. Imprisoned at his farm in the hills surrounding Florence, Galileo's was becoming increasingly frail and his sight was failing. Nevertheless, it was here that he wrote his most important scientific work, Discourses Concering Two New Sciences, which was published in Holland in 1638. Dealing with falling bodies and the path of projectiles it laid the foundations for modern kinematics.

A FAMOUS PHYSICIST FOR HISOTRY Marie Curie Physicist, 1867 - 1934

Marie Sklodowska (sklaw DAWF skah) was born November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. She would become famous for her research into radioactivity, and was the first woman to win a Nobel prize.

Marie grew up in a family that valued education. As a young woman she went to Paris to study mathematics, chemistry and physics. She began studying at the Sorbonne in 1891, and was the first woman to teach there. She adopted the French spelling of her name (Marie) and also met Pierre Curie, who taught physics at University of Paris. Marie and Pierre soon married, and teamed up to conduct research on radioactive substances. They found that the uranium ore, or pitchblende, contained much more radioactivity than could be explained solely by the uranium content.

The Curie’s began a search for the source of the radioactivity and discovered two highly radioactive elements, “radium” and “polonium.” The Curie's won the 1903 Nobel prize for physics for their discovery. They shared the award with another French physicist, Antoine Henri Bacquerel, who had discovered natural radioactivity. In 1906 Pierre, overworked and weakened by his prolonged exposure to radiation, died when he was run over by a horse drawn wagon.

Madame Curie continued her work on radioactive elements and won the 1911 Nobel prize for chemistry for isolating radium and studying its chemical properties. In 1914 she helped found the Radium Institute in Paris, and was the Institute's first director. When the first world war broke out, Madame Curie thought X-rays would help to locate bullets and facilitate surgery. It was also important not to move the wounded, so she invented X-ray vans and trained 150 female attendants.

On July 4, 1934, at the age of 67 Madame Curie died of leukemia (aplastic pernicious anemia), thought to have been brought on by exposure to the high levels of radiation involved in her research. After her death the Radium Institute was rename the Curie Institute in her honor.

ABOUT THE MARIE CURIE ACHIEVE?

Marie Curie was interested in recent discoveries in the field of radiation and began studying uranium radiations. Using techniques devised by her husband she measured the radiations in pitchblende. Pitchblende is an ore containing uranium. Marie Curie identified there were radiations from the ore more radioactive than the ore itself.

She was the first scientist to use the term radioactive, to describe elements that give off radiations as their nuclei break down.

Pierre Curie joined his wife in her research and in 1898 they announced their discovery of polonium and radium.

In 1903 they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of radioactive elements. They shared this with another French scientist called Becquerel. Marie Curie became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize.

On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed by a horse drawn cart in Paris.

Marie Curie took over her husband's classes at the University of Paris and continued with his research.

She was again awarded the Nobel Prize in 1911, this time in chemistry, for her work in radium and radium compounds. This was an important achievement, as no one had ever been awarded a second Nobel Prize, made even more remarkable as women were not commonly involved in such work. Indeed, Marie Curie did not receive any recognition when in 1904 Pierre Curie was appointed professor of physics at the University of Paris nor in 1905 when he was made a member of the French Academy.

In 1914 Marie Curie was further recognised by being appointed head of the Paris Institute of Radium. She then went on to help found the Curie Institute.

Marie Curie died on 4 July 1934 of an illness directly caused by her excessive exposure to radiation over the years.

Even today, you will find the names Marie Curie and the Marie Curie Institute are still associated with cancer research and cancer care.

ABOUT MARIE CURIE (1867 -1934) : WHO WAS MARIE CURIE

Marie Curie was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the only person to win the Nobel Prize twice. Working together, Marie and her husband Pierre, discovered the chemical elements radium and polonium.

Born on November 7 1867 in Warsaw, Marie Curie received her early scientific training from her father who was a physics teacher. She then went on to study at Cracow and 1891 she went to the Sorbonne in Paris obtaining her degree two years later.

To meet the expenses for fees, books and living Marie Curie had to work caring for the laboratories. While at the university she met Pierre Curie who was professor of physics and they eventually married in 1895.

Invation of Watch for Peter Henlein

Peter Henlein (or Henle or Hele) (1479/1480 – August 1542), was a locksmith and  watchmaker from Nuremberg. He is often said to be the inventor of the watch. This is disputed. Henlein was certainly one of the first makers of the watch. Although many say that Henlein invented the mainspring, there are descriptions and two surviving examples show that spring driven clocks had already been made by the early 1400s. ^{[1][2][3] [4][5][6]} He did make improvements to the balance spring, which made it possible to make the watches smaller.^[7]
Around 1504 to 1508 Henlein did make a a watch; a small, drum-shaped Taschenuhr. It could run for forty hours before it needed rewinding. They were small enough to be worn around the neck, or carried in a bag or pocket. His watch only had an hour hand