about the Joseph Lister and his image

Joseph Lister was born on the 5th April, 1827 at Upton, Essex, England. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from University College, London and then continued as a medical student in 1848. He was influenced by the physiologist William Sharpney and obtained his medical degree in 1852.
In 1856, Joseph Lister became an assistant surgeon at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, where he met his future wife, who was extremely interested in his work.
Lister was appointed to the Regius Professorship of Surgery at Glasgow University in 1861 and was later made surgeon at Glasgow Royal Infirmary.

History of Galileo Galilei & his invations

Galileo Galilei was born in 1564 at Pisa. Galileo began his studies in medicine at the University of Pisa, but soon dropped out, preferring to study mathematics with Ostilio Ricci. In 1592 he obtained the chair of mathematics at Padua, and began working on the inclined plane and the pendulum. By 1598, Galileo believed in the truth of the Copernican theory, as he wrote to Kepler. Around 1604, he began working on astronomy in order to lecture on the new star that had appeared that year.
In 1609, Galileo heard of the telescope while in Venice, and on his return, constructed one for himself. In 1610, Galileo published his telescopic discoveries in The Starry Messenger, and dedicated the four satellites of Jupiter that he had discovered to Cosimo II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, naming them 'the Medicean stars'.

In The Starry Messenger, in addition to the satellites of Jupiter, Galileo reported that the milky-way was a collection of stars and how the moon in fact had a ragged surface like earth. The Starry Messenger was a sensational success, and Galileo became well known throughout Europe. In 1611, Galileo traveled to Rome, where the Collegio Romano, at the behest of Robert Bellarmino, confirmed Galileo's findings. Frederico Cesi hosted a banquet in honour of Galileo, and was elected to Cesi's 'Accademia dei Lincei' (Academy of the Lynxes). In Rome, Galileo also met Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, who later sided with him on the controversy over floating bodies at a court dinner in Florence.

Picture of Jupiter's satellites from the Sidereus Nuncius.
Image by kind permission of the Master and Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Large image (89K).
Very large image (1M).

One morning in 1613, at breakfast, Cosimo de' Medici and his mother, the Grand Duchess Christina began discussing the truth of Jupiter's satellites. Benedetto Castelli, Galileo's student, who was present, asked Galileo to comment on the central point of that conversation Ü the conflict between the Bible and the heliocentric doctrine. The reply was the famous 'Letter to Grand Duchess Christina' which circulated widely in manuscript form at the time. In it, Galileo famously declared that the Bible teaches how to go to heaven, not how the heavens go. Galileo's belief in the truth of the Copernican hypothesis alarmed Dominicans such as Tommaso Caccini and Niccolo Lorini, and the Inquisition examined Galileo's letter to Christina. Thus began Galileo's trouble with the Catholic Church.
Galileo's run-in with the Church is famous to this day, though often over-romanticized or misunderstood. For instance, his declaration in the wake of the condemnation: 'And yet the earth still moves!' is apocryphal. It is therefore important to appreciate the precise nature of the affair.

There were two occasions (1616 and 1632) when Galileo was called to Rome over the truth of Copernicus' theory. As a result of inspecting Galileo's letter, in February 1616, it was agreed by the Inquisition that 1) the immobility of the Sun at the centre of the universe was absurd in philosophy and formally heretical, and that 2) the mobility of Earth was absurd in philosophy and at least erroneous in theology.

At the order of the Pope, Galileo was then summoned (February 1616) by Robert Bellarmino to be cautioned against speaking out on behalf of the Copernican claim. Rumours, however, quickly began to circulate that Galileo had been condemned and prosecuted. In defence, Galileo secured from Bellarmino a letter stating that this was not the case but that he had had been notified of the Papal decision to censor Copernicus' De Revolutionibus because a heliostatic claim was contrary to the literal meaning of Scripture.

Galileo duly kept away from writing on cosmological matters, concentrating instead, on applying his discovery of Jupiter's satellites for determining longitude at sea. In 1623 he wrote the Assayer, published by the Academy of the Lynxes and dedicated to Barberini. There, Galileo famously wrote:

Philosophy is written in this grand book - the universe - which stands continuously open to our gaze. But the book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth. (As quoted by Machamer in The Cambridge Companion to Galileo, pp.64f.)
His sympathizer and patron Barberini had just been elected Pope, as Urban VIII. In 1624 Galileo had an audience with the Pope, who favourably received the Assayer. In the meetings he had with the Pope, Galileo believed he was encouraged to discuss the Copernican theory so long as it was treated as an hypothesis and began to compose the Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, which was published in 1632 and dedicated to the Grand Duke. The work caused a furore because Galileo seemed to have gone against the injunction not to advocate the physical truth of Copernicus' claim. The sale of the book was suspended six months after its publication.
In September 1632, Galileo was summoned to Rome, where he arrived in January 1633. First the inquisitors tried to get Galileo to admit that he had earlier been officially banned from teaching Copernicus' theory as true, but Galileo produced Bellarmine's letter to contradict this. By then, both Bellarmine (1621) and Cesi (1630) were dead, and Galileo had few powerful patrons left to defend him. A plea bargain to plead guilty to a lesser charge was scuppered, however, when Urban VIII decided in June that Galileo should be imprisoned for life. Galileo was then interrogated under threat of torture, and made to abjure the 'vehement suspicion of heresy'. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. Galileo spent the rest of his life at his home at Arcetri, under house arrest with the archbishop of Siena. Pleas for pardons or for medical treatment were refused.

WHAT DID GALILEO GALILEI ACHIEVES ?

In 1609 Galileo heard that a new instrument had been invented in the Netherlands which made objects in the distance seem close to the observer. Galileo tried to create this using a variety of lenses and he soon succeeded in making a basic telescope using a concave and a convex lens at either end of a lead tube. At the third attempt he produced a telescope that made objects appear 1 000 times larger and over thirty times closer than seen with the naked eye. Although Galileo could see the importance of the telescope's aid to navigation at sea and over land, he was most interested in its use to look at the skies.

Through the telescope, Galileo observed that the surface of the moon appeared pitted with craters. There were mountain peaks lit by the sun's light and other parts that remained in darkness. Galileo then turned his telescope to view the stars, but found that unlike the moon, the stars were hardly magnified. He was, however, overwhelmed by the hundreds of stars that suddenly became visible. The Milky Way, which to the naked eye had been just a pale uncertain glow, viewed through a telescope was revealed as a myriad of individual stars.

On 7 January 1610, Galileo observed three very bright objects close to Jupiter. After observing these over a number of nights, he noticed that the pattern changed and a fourth bright object became visible. Galileo explained there were four satellites which revolved about Jupiter and Jupiter and its satellites revolved around the sun.

To Galileo, it followed that the sun must be the centre of the universe.

In March 1610, Galileo published the results of his observations under the title The Starry Messenger. Hundreds of copies were soon printed. Some philosophers such as Kepler, received his work with enthusiasm, but others such as Libri who taught philosophy at Pisa, were far less enthusiastic. Libri actually refused to even look through a telescope. Allegations were made that Galileo's observations were the result of illusions created by the telescope. This may seem a curious reaction, but it was well known that a single lens could distort and if this was the case, the combination of two lens could be regarded with even more suspicion.

Galileo's new found fame gained him an appointment as court mathematician in Florence. This freed him from teaching duties and gave him more opportunity to carry out research and writing. By December 1610 he had observed the phases of Venus which further confirmed his faith in the theories of Copernicus.

In 1611 Galileo visited Rome and was greeted by Clavius and other Jesuits of the Roman College. The head of the Roman College. Cardinal Robert Bellarmine asked the Jesuit mathematicians for their opinions of Galileo's discoveries. The Jesuits confirmed Galileo's discoveries to Bellarmine. Galileo went on to have an audience with the Pope where he was well received. While in Rome he was made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, a society dedicated to the pursuit of learning, especially of natural philosophy. It appeared that Galileo's visit to Rome had been a great success and his standing in the Church seemed high. But, this was not necessarily the case!

Cardinal Bellarmine was a leading theologian in the Catholic Church and the Guardian of Orthodoxy. He had been one of the Inquisitors who had tried Giordano Bruno, for heretical views on the Immaculate Conception and other conflicting philosophies. Bruno was burned at the stake in 1600. Bellarmine did not want another such case on his hands, as Bruno had also been a supporter of Copernicus. So, despite the opinions of the Jesuits he wrote to the the Chief Inquisitor at Padua to ask if Galileo's name had been mentioned in the recent case of an Aristotelian philosopher who had aroused Church opposition for his denial of the immortality of the soul. Galileo had no involvement in the case.

The Church was not the only body which Galileo had to fear. There were also enemies working against him amongst the university professors, whose reputations and occupations depended on the continuation of Aristotelian philosophies. There is evidence that one man in particular, Lodovico delle Colombe was behind the outbursts that certain friars were soon to make on Galileo.

In 1612 Galileo published a work titled, Discourse on Floating Bodies, which attacked Aristotelian physics. This resulted in Galileo's own work being challenged in four printed articles.

In 1613 Galileo published Letters on Sunspots which resulted in an unpleasant argument with Father Christopher Scheiner, a Jesuit astronomer. Galileo argued that the sun, like the moon was not free from imperfections. However, blemishes on the face of the sun were unacceptable to Scheiner, who, as an Aristotelian believed in the perfection of the heavens. Scheiner attributed sunspots to small planets obstructing our view of the sun as they passed close to it. In fact sunspots had been observed centuries before as they are visible to the naked eye. Unlike The Starry Messenger which had been written in Latin, Letters on Sunspots were in Italian and so could be read by a far greater number of people.

In Galileo's absence a Pisan professor told the Medici family, who were Galileo's employers and the ruling body, that belief in a moving earth was heretical.

In 1614 a Florentine priest denounced Galileists from the pulpit. In response, Galileo wrote a long, open letter on the irrelevance of biblical passages in scientific arguments. He argued that interpretation of the Bible should be adapted to increasing knowledge and that no scientific position should ever be made an article of Roman Catholic Faith. Cardinal Bellarmine instructed Galileo he must no longer hold or defend the policy that the earth moves. Galileo remained silent on the subject for a number of years, working on a method of determining longitudes at sea by using his predictions of the positions of Jupiter's satellites.

In 1624 Galileo started on a book he wanted to call Dialogue on the Tides. In this he discussed the Ptolemaic and Copernican hypothesis in relation to the physics of tides. In 1634 the book was licensed for printing but the Roman Catholic censors altered the title to Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems. It was published at Florence in 1632.

Galileo was summoned to Rome to face the Inquisition and to stand trial for "grave suspicion of heresy." This charge was grounded on a report that Galileo had been personally ordered in 1616 not to discuss Coperican theory either orally or in writing. Cardinal Bellarmine had died, but Galileo produced a certificate signed by the cardinal stating that Galileo had been subjected to no further restriction than any other Roman Catholic under the 1616 edict. No signed document contradicting this was ever found.

In 1633 Galileo was compelled to abjure and was sentenced to life imprisonment, which was swiftly commuted to house arrest. The Dialogue was ordered to be burned and the sentence against was to be read publicly in every university in Italy. Imprisoned at his farm in the hills surrounding Florence, Galileo's was becoming increasingly frail and his sight was failing. Nevertheless, it was here that he wrote his most important scientific work, Discourses Concering Two New Sciences, which was published in Holland in 1638. Dealing with falling bodies and the path of projectiles it laid the foundations for modern kinematics.

A FAMOUS PHYSICIST FOR HISOTRY Marie Curie Physicist, 1867 - 1934

Marie Sklodowska (sklaw DAWF skah) was born November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. She would become famous for her research into radioactivity, and was the first woman to win a Nobel prize.

Marie grew up in a family that valued education. As a young woman she went to Paris to study mathematics, chemistry and physics. She began studying at the Sorbonne in 1891, and was the first woman to teach there. She adopted the French spelling of her name (Marie) and also met Pierre Curie, who taught physics at University of Paris. Marie and Pierre soon married, and teamed up to conduct research on radioactive substances. They found that the uranium ore, or pitchblende, contained much more radioactivity than could be explained solely by the uranium content.

The Curie’s began a search for the source of the radioactivity and discovered two highly radioactive elements, “radium” and “polonium.” The Curie's won the 1903 Nobel prize for physics for their discovery. They shared the award with another French physicist, Antoine Henri Bacquerel, who had discovered natural radioactivity. In 1906 Pierre, overworked and weakened by his prolonged exposure to radiation, died when he was run over by a horse drawn wagon.

Madame Curie continued her work on radioactive elements and won the 1911 Nobel prize for chemistry for isolating radium and studying its chemical properties. In 1914 she helped found the Radium Institute in Paris, and was the Institute's first director. When the first world war broke out, Madame Curie thought X-rays would help to locate bullets and facilitate surgery. It was also important not to move the wounded, so she invented X-ray vans and trained 150 female attendants.

On July 4, 1934, at the age of 67 Madame Curie died of leukemia (aplastic pernicious anemia), thought to have been brought on by exposure to the high levels of radiation involved in her research. After her death the Radium Institute was rename the Curie Institute in her honor.

ABOUT THE MARIE CURIE ACHIEVE?

Marie Curie was interested in recent discoveries in the field of radiation and began studying uranium radiations. Using techniques devised by her husband she measured the radiations in pitchblende. Pitchblende is an ore containing uranium. Marie Curie identified there were radiations from the ore more radioactive than the ore itself.

She was the first scientist to use the term radioactive, to describe elements that give off radiations as their nuclei break down.

Pierre Curie joined his wife in her research and in 1898 they announced their discovery of polonium and radium.

In 1903 they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of radioactive elements. They shared this with another French scientist called Becquerel. Marie Curie became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize.

On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed by a horse drawn cart in Paris.

Marie Curie took over her husband's classes at the University of Paris and continued with his research.

She was again awarded the Nobel Prize in 1911, this time in chemistry, for her work in radium and radium compounds. This was an important achievement, as no one had ever been awarded a second Nobel Prize, made even more remarkable as women were not commonly involved in such work. Indeed, Marie Curie did not receive any recognition when in 1904 Pierre Curie was appointed professor of physics at the University of Paris nor in 1905 when he was made a member of the French Academy.

In 1914 Marie Curie was further recognised by being appointed head of the Paris Institute of Radium. She then went on to help found the Curie Institute.

Marie Curie died on 4 July 1934 of an illness directly caused by her excessive exposure to radiation over the years.

Even today, you will find the names Marie Curie and the Marie Curie Institute are still associated with cancer research and cancer care.

ABOUT MARIE CURIE (1867 -1934) : WHO WAS MARIE CURIE

Marie Curie was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the only person to win the Nobel Prize twice. Working together, Marie and her husband Pierre, discovered the chemical elements radium and polonium.

Born on November 7 1867 in Warsaw, Marie Curie received her early scientific training from her father who was a physics teacher. She then went on to study at Cracow and 1891 she went to the Sorbonne in Paris obtaining her degree two years later.

To meet the expenses for fees, books and living Marie Curie had to work caring for the laboratories. While at the university she met Pierre Curie who was professor of physics and they eventually married in 1895.

Invation of Watch for Peter Henlein

Peter Henlein (or Henle or Hele) (1479/1480 – August 1542), was a locksmith and  watchmaker from Nuremberg. He is often said to be the inventor of the watch. This is disputed. Henlein was certainly one of the first makers of the watch. Although many say that Henlein invented the mainspring, there are descriptions and two surviving examples show that spring driven clocks had already been made by the early 1400s. ^{[1][2][3] [4][5][6]} He did make improvements to the balance spring, which made it possible to make the watches smaller.^[7]
Around 1504 to 1508 Henlein did make a a watch; a small, drum-shaped Taschenuhr. It could run for forty hours before it needed rewinding. They were small enough to be worn around the neck, or carried in a bag or pocket. His watch only had an hour hand

Alliance Historical Society OF Mabel Hartzell Historic Home

The Mabel Hartzell Historic Home was built in 1867 for Matthew and Mary Edwards Earley. The style is Italianate and features wide eaves supported by pronounced bracketing. The front porch runs along the entire front and a portion of the side of the house.
Arch-shaped ornamentation is incorporated between the porch posts. The bricks were manufactured in the Alliance area.
Matthew Earley was born in Poland, Ohio in 1829 and moved to the Alliance area in 1859. He married Mary Edwards Earley in 1865. Matthew operated a tannery at Vine Street and Walnut Avenue. He owned a machine shop in Bolton, Ohio and was a city councilman.
The Earley home was considered a showplace in the late 1800s. The original property extended north to the Mahoning River. A portion of the Earley's farm is now Earley's Hill Park, part of the Alliance City park system.
Mabel Hartzell willed her home and its contents to the Alliance Historical Society upon her death to be used as an historical museum for the City of Alliance.
The Mabel Hartzell Historic Home located at 840 N. Park Avenue, Alliance, OH is owned and operated by the Alliance Historical Society, P. O. Box 2044, Alliance, OH 44601. Tours are available by appointment. Call 330-823-1677 for further information.

For the history of Alliance Historical Society

The Alliance Historical Society was founded for the promotion of historical studies of the City of Alliance and its surrounding areas. Members of the Society collect, preserve, and organize historical materials and work with area schools and community organizations to present historical programs.

The home of the Alliance Historical Society is the Mabel Hartzell House. It is open for tours during Carnation Week in August and at other times by appointment.

Exhibits of historical materials are supplied by the Society for display at local businesses and public buildings. Members of the Society are also available for talks and slide shows at area clubs and meetings.

A video of D. W. Crist, Ohio Composer, presented by Dr. James Perone, professor of music at Mount Union College for a joint program of Mu Phi Epsilon Alliance Alumni, the Alliance Historical Society, and Rodman Public Library is now online. Compositions of Crist are performed by J. Kim Lewis, Russell Newburn, Phillip Gehm, and Joyce Gorby.

The Alliance Historical Society is proud to support the Alliance Memory Project at Rodman Public Library.

Help support our programs and preservation efforts by submitting a tax-deductible donation using your PayPal account or credit card today.

Atmospheric Steam Engine ivent by Thomas Newcomen & John Calley

Thomas Newcomen was assisted by John Calley in his steam research, the two inventors are listed on the patent for the Atmospheric Steam Engine.

Thomas Newcomen and John Calley were both uneducated in mechanical engineering and corresponded with scientist Robert Hooke asking him to advise them about their plans to build a steam engine with a steam cylinder containing a piston similar to that of Denis Papin's. Hooke advised against their plan, but, fortunately, the obstinate and uneducated mechanics stuck to their plans.

Thomas Newcomen and John Calley built an engine that while not a total success, they were able to patent in 1708. It was an engine combining a steam cylinder and piston, surface condensation, a separate boiler, and separate pumps. Also named on the patent was Thomas Savery who at that time held the exclusive rights to use surface condensation.

Atmospheric Steam Engine ivent by Thomas Newcomen since 1712

Who was the man who put together the prototype for the first modern steam engine? It was Thomas Newcomen a blacksmith from Dartmouth, England and the engine invented by him in 1712 was known as the "Atmospheric Steam Engine".

Before Thomas Newcomen's time, steam engine technology was in its infancy. Inventors, Edward Somerset of Worcester, Thomas Savery, and John Desaguliers were researching the technology before Thomas Newcomen begin his experiments, their research inspired inventors Thomas Newcomen and James Watt to invent practical and useful steam-powered machines.

Michael Faraday history and invantion

Michael Faraday's Born in  (1791-1867) British physicist and chemist, best known for his discoveries of electromagnetic induction and of the laws of electrolysis. His biggest breakthrough in electricity was his invention of the electric motor.
Born in 1791 to a poor family in London, Michael Faraday was extremely curious, questioning everything. He felt an urgent need to know more. At age 13, he became an errand boy for a bookbinding shop in London. He read every book that he bound, and decided that one day he would write a book of his own. He became interested in the concept of energy, specifically force. Because of his early reading and experiments with the idea of force, he was able to make important discoveries in electricity later in life. He eventually became a chemist and physicist.
Michael Faraday built two devices to produce what he called electromagnetic rotation: that is a continuous circular motion from the circular magnetic force around a wire. Ten years later, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. These experiments form the basis of modern electromagnetic technology.

History about Charles Darwin since 1809 to 1882

harles Robert Darwin was born on 12 February 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire into a wealthy and well-connected family. His maternal grandfather was china manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood, while his paternal grandfather was Erasmus Darwin, one of the leading intellectuals of 18th century England.
Darwin himself initially planned to follow a medical career, and studied at Edinburgh University but later switched to divinity at Cambridge. In 1831, he joined a five year scientific expedition on the survey ship HMS Beagle.
At this time, most Europeans believed that the world was created by God in seven days as described in the bible. On the voyage, Darwin read Lyell's 'Principles of Geology' which suggested that the fossils found in rocks were actually evidence of animals that had lived many thousands or millions of years ago. Lyell's argument was reinforced in Darwin's own mind by the rich variety of animal life and the geological features he saw during his voyage. The breakthrough in his ideas came in the Galapagos Islands, 500 miles west of South America. Darwin noticed that each island supported its own form of finch which were closely related but differed in important ways.
On his return to England in 1836, Darwin tried to solve the riddles of these observations and the puzzle of how species evolve. Influenced by the ideas of Malthus, he proposed a theory of evolution occurring by the process of natural selection. The animals (or plants) best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on the characteristics which helped them survive to their offspring. Gradually, the species changes over time.
Darwin worked on his theory for 20 years. After learning that another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, had developed similar ideas, the two made a joint announcement of their discovery in 1858. In 1859 Darwin published 'On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection'.
The book was extremely controversial, because the logical extension of Darwin's theory was that homo sapiens was simply another form of animal. It made it seem possible that even people might just have evolved - quite possibly from apes - and destroyed the prevailing orthodoxy on how the world was created. Darwin was vehemently attacked, particularly by the Church. However, his ideas soon gained currency and have become the new orthodoxy.
Darwin died on 19 April 1882 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Galileo Galilei worked with telescope ivent

In Venice on a holiday in 1609, Galileo Galilei heard rumors that a Dutch spectacle-maker had invented a device that made distant objects seem near at hand (at first called the spyglass and later renamed the telescope). A patent had been requested, but not yet granted, and the methods were being kept secret, since it was obviously of tremendous military value for Holland.

About Galileo Galilei History

Galileo Galilei was born on 15 February 1564 near Pisa, the son of a musician. He began to study medicine at the University of Pisa but changed to philosophy and mathematics. In 1589, he became professor of mathematics at Pisa. In 1592, he moved to become mathematics professor at the University of Padua, a position he held until 1610. During this time he worked on a variety of experiments, including the speed at which different objects fall, mechanics and pendulums.
In 1609, Galileo heard about the invention of the telescope in Holland. Without having seen an example, he constructed a superior version and made many astronomical discoveries. These included mountains and valleys on the surface of the moon, sunspots, the four largest moons of the planet Jupiter and the phases of the planet Venus. His work on astronomy made him famous and he was appointed court mathematician in Florence.
In 1614, Galileo was accused of heresy for his support of the Copernican theory that the sun was at the centre of the solar system. This was revolutionary at a time when most people believed the Earth was in this central position. In 1616, he was forbidden by the church from teaching or advocating these theories.
In 1632, he was again condemned for heresy after his book 'Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems' was published. This set out the arguments for and against the Copernican theory in the form of a discussion between two men. Galileo was summoned to appear before the Inquisition in Rome. He was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, later reduced to permanent house arrest at his villa in Arcetri, south of Florence. He was also forced to publicly withdraw his support for Copernican theory.
Although he was now going blind he continued to write. In 1638, his 'Discourses Concerning Two New Sciences' was published with Galileo's ideas on the laws of motion and the principles of mechanics. Galileo died in Arcetri on 8 January 1642.

About the Albert Einstein

Einstein was one of the fathers of the atomic age. He was one of the greatest scientists of all time. In 1905 Einstein contributed three papers to Annalen der Physik (Annals of Physics), a German scientific periodical. Each of them became the basis of a new branch of physics.

Einstein treated matter and energy as exchangeable. Albert Einstein became famous for the theory of relativity, which laid the basis for the release of atomic energy.

In 1905 Albert Einstein formulates Special Theory of Relativity.

He established law of mass- energy equivalence; through his famous formula E=mc²

Einstein calculates how the movement of molecules in a liquid can cause the Brownian motion.

Using Max Planck’s quantum Theory he formulated the photon theory of light and explains the photoelectric effect.

In 1916 proposes general theory of relativity-still central to our understanding of the universe. Einstein changed the political balance of power in the twentieth century, through his scientific foundation in the development of atomic energy.

About the Neil Arnott history

(b. Arbroath, May 15, 1788; d. March 2, 1874 in London) was a Scottish physician.

Neil Arnott FRS was a distinguished graduate of Marischal College, University of Aberdeen (AM, 1805; MD 1814) and subsequently learned in London under Sir Everard Home (1756-1832), through whom he obtained, while yet in his nineteenth year, the appointment of full surgeon to an East Indiaman. After making two voyages to China acting as a surgeon in the service of the British East India Company (1807-9 and 1810-11), he settled in London where he practiced from 1811-1854, and quickly acquired a high reputation in his profession. He gave lectures at the Philomathic Institution published as Elements of physics (1827). He was one of the founders of the University of London, 1836. Within a few years he was made physician to the French and Spanish embassies, and in 1837 he became physician extraordinary to the Queen. He was elected to the Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1838. He was a strong advocate of scientific, as opposed to purely classical, education; and he manifested interest in natural philosophy by the gift of 2,000 pounds to each of the four universities of Scotland and to the University of London, to promote its study in the experimental and practical form.

Charles Darwin geologist

The father of arguably the most controversial scientific theory of the modern age, Darwin was born in England in 1809 and first made a name for himself as a geologist. Also a naturalist, he arrived at a theory of evolution through the process of natural selection after travelling on HMS Beagle and making careful observations. This theory was published in On the Origin of Species in 1859 and went on to gain widespread scientific acceptance as it was proved correct. He died in 1882, having won many accolades.

Greham Bell's invented Telephone

In 1876, at the age of 29, Alexander Graham Bell invented his telephone. In 1877, he formed the Bell Telephone Company, and in the same year married Mabel Hubbard and embarked on a yearlong honeymoon in Europe.

Alexander Graham Bell might easily have been content with the success of his telephone invention. His many laboratory notebooks demonstrate, however, that he was driven by a genuine and rare intellectual curiosity that kept him regularly searching, striving, and wanting always to learn and to create. He would continue to test out new ideas through a long and productive life. He would explore the realm of communications as well as engage in a great variety of scientific activities involving kites, airplanes, tetrahedral structures, sheep-breeding, artificial respiration, desalinization and water distillation, and hydrofoils.

Bill Gates Inventions

n 1975, before graduation Gates left Harvard to form Microsoft with his childhood friend Paul Allen. The pair planned to develop software for the newly emerging personal computer market.

Bill Gate's company Microsoft became famous for their computer operating systems and killer business deals. For example, Bill Gates talked IBM into letting Microsoft retain the licensing rights to MS-DOS an operating system, that IBM needed for their new personal computer. Gates proceeded to make a fortune from the licensing of MS-DOS.

On November 10, 1983, at the Plaza Hotel in New York City, Microsoft Corporation formally announced Microsoft Windows, a next-generation operating system.

On January 1, 1994, Bill Gates married Melinda French Gates. They have three children

Bill Gates stady

Bill Gates came from a family of entrepreneurship and high-spirited liveliness. William Henry Gates III was born in Seattle, Washington on October 28th, 1955. His father, William H. Gates II, is a Seattle attorney. His late mother, Mary Gates, was a schoolteacher, University of Washington regent, and chairwoman of United Way International.

Indian Scientist C.V. Raman

Scientist : C.V.Raman
Born: November 7, 1888
Died: November 21, 1970
Achievements: He was the first Indian scholar who studied wholly in India received the Nobel Prize.

C.V. Raman is one of the most renowned scientists produced by India. His full name was Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. For his pioneering work on scattering of light, C.V. Raman won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930.

Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on November 7, 1888 in Tiruchinapalli, Tamil Nadu. He was the second child of Chandrasekhar Iyer and Parvathi Amma. His father was a lecturer in mathematics and physics, so he had an academic atmosphere at home. He entered Presidency College, Madras, in 1902, and in 1904 passed his B.A. examination, winning the first place and the gold medal in physics. In 1907, C.V. Raman passed his M.A. obtaining the highest distinctions.

During those times there were not many opportunities for scientists in India. Therefore, Raman joined the Indian Finance Department in 1907. After his office hours, he carried out his experimental research in the laboratory of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science at Calcutta. He carried out research in acoustics and optics.

In 1917, Raman was offered the position of Sir Taraknath Palit Professorship of Physics at Calcutta University. He stayed there for the next fifteen years. During his tenure there, he received world wide recognition for his work in optics and scattering of light. He was elected to the Royal Society of London in 1924 and the British made him a knight of the British Empire in 1929. In 1930, Sir C.V. Raman was awarded with Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on scattering of light. The discovery was later christened as "Raman Effect".

In 1934, C.V. Raman became the director of the newly established Indian Institute of Sciences in Bangalore, where two years later he continued as a professor of physics. Other investigations carried out by Raman were: his experimental and theoretical studies on the diffraction of light by acoustic waves of ultrasonic and hypersonic frequencies (published 1934-1942), and those on the effects produced by X-rays on infrared vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light. In 1947, he was appointed as the first National Professor by the new government of Independent India. He retired from the Indian Institute in 1948 and a year later he established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore, where he worked till his death.

graham bell

In the 1870s, two inventors Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell both independently designed devices that could transmit speech electrically (the telephone). Both men rushed their respective designs to the patent office within hours of each other, Alexander Graham Bell patented  his telephone first. Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell entered into a famous legal battle over the invention of the telephone, which Bell won.


Alexander Graham Bell - Evolution of the Telegraph into the Telephone

Isaac Newton
I INTRODUCTION
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), mathematician and physicist, one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time. Born at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire, where he attended school, he entered Cambridge University in 1661; he was elected a Fellow of Trinity College in 1667, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669. He remained at the university, lecturing in most years, until 1696. Of these Cambridge years, in which Newton was at the height of his creative power, he singled out 1665-1666 (spent largely in Lincolnshire because of plague in Cambridge) as "the prime of my age for invention". During two to three years of intense mental effort he prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) commonly known as the Principia, although this was not published until 1687.

As a firm opponent of the attempt by King James II to make the universities into Catholic institutions, Newton was elected Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge to the Convention Parliament of 1689, and sat again in 1701-1702. Meanwhile, in 1696 he had moved to London as Warden of the Royal Mint. He became Master of the Mint in 1699, an office he retained to his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1671, and in 1703 he became President, being annually re-elected for the rest of his life. His major work, Opticks, appeared the next year; he was knighted in Cambridge in 1705.

As Newtonian science became increasingly accepted on the Continent, and especially after a general peace was restored in 1714, following the War of the Spanish Succession, Newton became the most highly esteemed natural philosopher in Europe. His last decades were passed in revising his major works, polishing his studies of ancient history, and defending himself against critics, as well as carrying out his official duties. Newton was modest, diffident, and a man of simple tastes. He was angered by criticism or opposition, and harboured resentment; he was harsh towards enemies but generous to friends. In government, and at the Royal Society, he proved an able administrator. He never married and lived modestly, but was buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey.

Newton has been regarded for almost 300 years as the founding examplar of modern physical science, his achievements in experimental investigation being as innovative as those in mathematical research. With equal, if not greater, energy and originality he also plunged into chemistry, the early history of Western civilization, and theology; among his special studies was an investigation of the form and dimensions, as described in the Bible, of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.

II OPTICS
In 1664, while still a student, Newton read recent work on optics and light by the English physicists Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke; he also studied both the mathematics and the physics of the French philosopher and scientist René Descartes. He investigated the refraction of light by a glass prism; developing over a few years a series of increasingly elaborate, refined, and exact experiments, Newton discovered measurable, mathematical patterns in the phenomenon of colour. He found white light to be a mixture of infinitely varied coloured rays (manifest in the rainbow and the spectrum), each ray definable by the angle through which it is refracted on entering or leaving a given transparent medium. He correlated this notion with his study of the interference colours of thin films (for example, of oil on water, or soap bubbles), using a simple technique of extreme acuity to measure the thickness of such films. He held that light consisted of streams of minute particles. From his experiments he could infer the magnitudes of the transparent "corpuscles" forming the surfaces of bodies, which, according to their dimensions, so interacted with white light as to reflect, selectively, the different observed colours of those surfaces.

The roots of these unconventional ideas were with Newton by about 1668; when first expressed (tersely and partially) in public in 1672 and 1675, they provoked hostile criticism, mainly because colours were thought to be modified forms of homogeneous white light. Doubts, and Newton's rejoinders, were printed in the learned journals. Notably, the scepticism of Christiaan Huygens and the failure of the French physicist Edmé Mariotte to duplicate Newton's refraction experiments in 1681 set scientists on the Continent against him for a generation. The publication of Opticks, largely written by 1692, was delayed by Newton until the critics were dead. The book was still imperfect: the colours of diffraction defeated Newton. Nevertheless, Opticks established itself, from about 1715, as a model of the interweaving of theory with quantitative experimentation.

III MATHEMATICS
In mathematics too, early brilliance appeared in Newton's student notes. He may have learnt geometry at school, though he always spoke of himself as self-taught; certainly he advanced through studying the writings of his compatriots William Oughtred and John Wallis, and of Descartes and the Dutch school. Newton made contributions to all branches of mathematics then studied, but is especially famous for his solutions to the contemporary problems in analytical geometry of drawing tangents to curves (differentiation) and defining areas bounded by curves (integration). Not only did Newton discover that these problems were inverse to each other, but he discovered general methods of resolving problems of curvature, embraced in his "method of fluxions" and "inverse method of fluxions", respectively equivalent to Leibniz's later differential and integral calculus. Newton used the term "fluxion" (from Latin meaning "flow") because he imagined a quantity "flowing" from one magnitude to another. Fluxions were expressed algebraically, as Leibniz's differentials were, but Newton made extensive use also (especially in the Principia) of analogous geometrical arguments. Late in life, Newton expressed regret for the algebraic style of recent mathematical progress, preferring the geometrical method of the Classical Greeks, which he regarded as clearer and more rigorous.

Newton's work on pure mathematics was virtually hidden from all but his correspondents until 1704, when he published, with Opticks, a tract on the quadrature of curves (integration) and another on the classification of the cubic curves. His Cambridge lectures, delivered from about 1673 to 1683, were published in 1707.

The Calculus Priority Dispute
Newton had the essence of the methods of fluxions by 1666. The first to become known, privately, to other mathematicians, in 1668, was his method of integration by infinite series. In Paris in 1675 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz independently evolved the first ideas of his differential calculus, outlined to Newton in 1677. Newton had already described some of his mathematical discoveries to Leibniz, not including his method of fluxions. In 1684 Leibniz published his first paper on calculus; a small group of mathematicians took up his ideas.

In the 1690s Newton's friends proclaimed the priority of Newton's methods of fluxions. Supporters of Leibniz asserted that he had communicated the differential method to Newton, although Leibniz had claimed no such thing. Newtonians then asserted, rightly, that Leibniz had seen papers of Newton's during a London visit in 1676; in reality, Leibniz had taken no notice of material on fluxions. A violent dispute sprang up, part public, part private, extended by Leibniz to attacks on Newton's theory of gravitation and his ideas about God and creation; it was not ended even by Leibniz's death in 1716. The dispute delayed the reception of Newtonian science on the Continent, and dissuaded British mathematicians from sharing the researches of Continental colleagues for a century.

IV MECHANICS AND GRAVITATION
According to the well-known story, it was on seeing an apple fall in his orchard at some time during 1665 or 1666 that Newton conceived that the same force governed the motion of the Moon and the apple. He calculated the force needed to hold the Moon in its orbit, as compared with the force pulling an object to the ground. He also calculated the centripetal force needed to hold a stone in a sling, and the relation between the length of a pendulum and the time of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by Newton, though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion.

Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the problem of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies as the inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so informing Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley's interest led Newton to demonstrate the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and finally to write the Principia.

Book I of the Principia states the foundations of the science of mechanics, developing upon them the mathematics of orbital motion round centres of force. Newton identified gravitation as the fundamental force controlling the motions of the celestial bodies. He never found its cause. To contemporaries who found the idea of attractions across empty space unintelligible, he conceded that they might prove to be caused by the impacts of unseen particles.

Book II inaugurates the theory of fluids: Newton solves problems of fluids in movement and of motion through fluids. From the density of air he calculated the speed of sound waves.

Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the Earth, and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult theory of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in later editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the forces exerted by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation.

Newton's work in mechanics was accepted at once in Britain, and universally after half a century. Since then it has been ranked among humanity's greatest achievements in abstract thought. It was extended and perfected by others, notably Pierre Simon de Laplace, without changing its basis and it survived into the late 19th century before it began to show signs of failing. See Quantum Theory; Relativity.

V ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY
Newton left a mass of manuscripts on the subjects of alchemy and chemistry, then closely related topics. Most of these were extracts from books, bibliographies, dictionaries, and so on, but a few are original. He began intensive experimentation in 1669, continuing till he left Cambridge, seeking to unravel the meaning that he hoped was hidden in alchemical obscurity and mysticism. He sought understanding of the nature and structure of all matter, formed from the "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles" that he believed God had created. Most importantly in the "Queries" appended to "Opticks" and in the essay "On the Nature of Acids" (1710), Newton published an incomplete theory of chemical force, concealing his exploration of the alchemists, which became known a century after his death.

VI HISTORICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL STUDIES
Newton owned more books on humanistic learning than on mathematics and science; all his life he studied them deeply. His unpublished "classical scholia"—explanatory notes intended for use in a future edition of the Principia—reveal his knowledge of pre-Socratic philosophy; he read the Fathers of the Church even more deeply. Newton sought to reconcile Greek mythology and record with the Bible, considered the prime authority on the early history of mankind. In his work on chronology he undertook to make Jewish and pagan dates compatible, and to fix them absolutely from an astronomical argument about the earliest constellation figures devised by the Greeks. He put the fall of Troy at 904 BC, about 500 years later than other scholars; this was not well received.

VII RELIGIOUS CONVICTIONS AND PERSONALITY
Newton also wrote on Judaeo-Christian prophecy, whose decipherment was essential, he thought, to the understanding of God. His book on the subject, which was reprinted well into the Victorian Age, represented lifelong study. Its message was that Christianity went astray in the 4th century AD, when the first Council of Nicaea propounded erroneous doctrines of the nature of Christ. The full extent of Newton's unorthodoxy was recognized only in the present century: but although a critic of accepted Trinitarian dogmas and the Council of Nicaea, he possessed a deep religious sense, venerated the Bible and accepted its account of creation. In late editions of his scientific works he expressed a strong sense of God's providential role in nature.

VIII PUBLICATIONS
Newton published an edition of Geographia generalis by the German geographer Varenius in 1672. His own letters on optics appeared in print from 1672 to 1676. Then he published nothing until the Principia (published in Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729). This was followed by Opticks in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in 1706. Posthumously published writings include The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728), The System of the World (1728), the first draft of Book III of the Principia, and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St John (1733).

ARCHEMIDES

Archimedes is still considered as the greatest mathematician of all time for his concepts of 'measurement of a circle, quadrature of the parabola and the sand reckoner'. Besides, he was also an engineer, an inventor, a physicist and an astronomer of great potential. He introduced to the world, the famous Archimedes principle which states that when an object is immersed in a fluid, it is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Archimedes designed the lever and pulley system and worked out their accurate working equations. “Give me a place to stand and I will move the earth" were his famous words with reference to the application of lever and pulley. It is known that Archimedes died around 212 BC, during the Second Punic War, however the cause of his death still remain obscure. Before his death Archimedes made a queer request that his tombstone be embellished with a sphere contained in the cylinder of smallest possible size and inscribed with the ratio of the cylinder's volume to that of the sphere.

Einstein's Method
A scholarly inquiry...

This book begins by recognizing that our knowledge of physics currently exceeds our ability to explain it. The last century’s great achievements in physics—quantum mechanics and relativity—have left us with numbers of questions that remain essentially unanswered. How can a photon or a speeding electron exhibit both particle and wave characteristics? What is the physical basis of a “probability wave?” Why is the velocity of light a constant for all observers? These puzzling concepts of modern physics have elicited many explanations over the last century, some offered by physicists and some by philosophers. None have offered us an “aha” moment and none have met with general, much less universal approval.

Considering the brilliance of some of the thinkers—beginning with Einstein—who have grappled with these problems, it no longer seems likely that sheer brain power will suffice. There are too few markers for the correct approach, too many ways to go wrong and perhaps only one way to go right. What is needed to make progress in these matters is a heuristic approach; a methodology that will, via self-consistency, alert us when we make a wrong assumption. This book argues that the method we need is the method Einstein used.

So what is Einstein’s method and how did he use it?

Einstein’s method is fairly straightforward. It is a form of analysis, both conceptual and mathematical, that depends upon and utilizes the symmetrical relationship of the photon gas to the molecular (ideal) gas. In a series of papers between 1905 and 1925 Einstein made some startling advances in quantum theory by comparing mass quanta in the molecular gas to energy quanta in the photon (radiation) gas. For a fuller description of his approach, click the “Einstein’s Method” link to the left. The young Einstein was a serious student of both thermodynamics and molecular statistical mechanics and he used his “method” entirely within the realm of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. A fine example of this is his “Heuristic Viewpoint” paper of 1905 wherein he argues that the entropy decrease of radiation compressed in time and molecular quanta compressed in space supports the conclusion that radiation is composed of discrete energy quanta. The proposal here is that the method of analysis that Einstein used within thermodynamics can be extended to areas that he did not cover. Specifically, his method can be applied to an ontological inquiry into the problems raised by quantum mechanics.

What is ontology and how can an ontological inquiry help us regarding the problems of modern physics?

Traditional ontology is the study of those things that exist, but it is broadened in these pages to include things (entities) that also occur. Ontology is important because the great questions of physics often revolve around what exists and what occurs. Consider the case of a speeding electron encountering a double slit and then terminating by impacting a barrier screen. When interacting with the double slit the electron acts as a wave which implies that it occurs, but when terminating at the barrier screen the electron acts as a particle which implies that it exists. So this becomes a question of ontology: does the speeding electron exist, or does it occur, or is there and intermediate state or process that can reconcile these polar opposites? This experiment in physics challenges our very notion of an entity’s identity as an existence, or an occurrence, but not both simultaneously. Shall we side with Bohr and conclude that reality depends upon how we measure it, or shall we keep faith with Einstein and his belief that reality is fundamentally objective despite quantum obfuscation? Einstein’s method applied in new ways to the photon gas and the molecular gas provides new insights into these questions that have been debated for almost a century.